Tropical Plants in the Americas Part 3 compiled by Armas Hill

PO Box 9021, Wilmington, DE 19809, USA
E-mail: font@focusonnature.com
Phone: Toll-free in USA 1-888-721-3555
or 302/529-1876

Tropical Plants
of the
Americas

in Mexico, Central America
South America,
and the Caribbean

with those during
Focus On Nature Tours
thru 2015
noted with an (*)

during tours in the months of
January, February, March, April,
May, July, November, and December

The 3rd part of a three-part list of Tropical Plants of the Americas compiled by Armas Hill

Photo at upper right:  the orchid, SOBRALIA ROSEA
photographed during the FONT tour in southern Ecuador in April 2014
(photo by Marie Gardner)

FONT tours in the Neotropics have been in southern Mexico, Central America, South America, and on islands
in the Caribbean.

In the list that follows, below the scientific names are names in English and Spanish (S:) and Portuguese (P:).
The families in the list are given (mostly) in alphabetical order, and genera within them are given alphabetically as well.
Families that are "break-offs" from other families are at times here still with them, and may be out of alphabetical order.

Plant Families listed alphabetically by the scientific name of the family (prior to OCHNACEAE)
are in the first and second parts of this list:

TROPICAL PLANTS OF THE AMERICAS, Part #1
(from ACANTHACEAE, Acanthus to CYATHEACEAE, Tree Ferns)

TROPICAL PLANTS OF THE AMERICAS, Part #2
(from DENNSTAEDTIACEAE, Ferns to NYMPHAEACEAE, Water Lilies)

Links to Plant Families in this Part of the List:

OCHNACEAE - Wild Plane family OLACACEAE OLEACEAE - Olive, Jasmine

ONAGRACEAE - Willowherb, Evening Primrose     ORCHIDACEAE - Orchids   includes Vanilla

OROBANCHACEAE - Broomrapes includes Indian Paintbrush    OXALIDACEAE    PAPAVERACEAE - Poppies

PASSIFLORACEAE - Passionflowers    PHYTOLACCACEAE - Pokeweed    PINACEAE - Pines

PIPERACEAE - Pepper     PLANTAGINACEAE - Plantains (not related to the Banana)

POACEAE (or GRAMINEAE) - Grasses includes Bamboo, Rice, Corn PODOCARPACEAE - Podocarpus

POLEMONIACEAE - Phloxes     POLYGALACEAE - Milkworts

POLYGONACEAE - Buckwheats   includes Seagrape, Dziozilache Honey (Mayan)

POLYPODIACEAE - Polypod Ferns     PONTEDERIACEAE - Water Hyacinth, Pickerel-weed

PORTULACACEAE - Purslanes PRIMULACEAE - Primrose PROTEACEAE - Macadamia and allies

PSILOTACEAE - fern-like plants without roots and true leaves PTERIDACEAE - ferns

RHAMNACEE - Buckthorns

RHIZOPHORACEAE (and PELLICIERACEAE) - Mangroves and allies   includes Tea Mangrove, Red Mangrove

Recent taxonomy has put PELLICIERACEAE in the family TETRAMERISTACEAE.

ROSACEAE - Rose   includes Polylepis

RUBIACEAE - Madders   includes Coffee, Psychotria elata ("Hot Lips"), Quinine    RUPPIACEAE - Ditch Grass

RUTACEAE - Citrus, or Rue includes Lime, Sour Orange, Shaddock, Sweet Lime, Sweet Orange

SALICACEAE - Willows SANTALACEAE - Sandalwoods (includes VISCACEAE, Mistletoes)

SAPINDACEAE - Soapberry family includes Akee (or Aki), Guarana

SAPOTACEAE - Sapote plants includes Star Apple, Chicle (the source of chewing gum), Yellow Sapote (or Eggfruit)

SCROPHULARIACEAE - Snapdragons, or Figworts SIMAROUBACEAE SMILACACEAE - Greenbriars

SOLANACEAE - Nightshades includes Cayenne Pepper, various Chiles, Tomatillo, Tomato

STERCULIACEAE - Cacao plants   includes Cacao (or Cocoa)    STRELITZIACEAE     SURIANACEAE

THEOPHRASTACEAE    THYMELACEAE - Daphne    TILIACEAE    TYPHACEAE - Cattail

URTICACEAE - Nettles   including Cecropias

VERBENACEAE - Vervains, Verbanas   including Lantana, Mexican Oregano

VIOLACEAE - Violets     VITACEAE - Grape     VOCHYSIACEAE    ZAMIACEAE - Cone-palm Ferns

ZINGIBERACEAE - Ginger    ZYGOPHYLLACEAE - Caltrop   includes Jamaican Feverplant

AN ALPHABETICAL DIRECTORY OF PLANT GENERA IN THIS WEBSITE NOTING FAMILIES

A Photo Gallery of Plants during a FONT Tour in the Dominican Republic
with some of the photographed plants not identified. If you can ID any, we'd greatly appreciate.

A Photo Gallery of Plants during some FONT Tours in Ecuador
with some of the photographed plants not identified. if you can ID any, we'd greatly appreciate.

Codes:

BR: in Brazil    BZ: in Belize    CR: in Costa Rica    CY: in the Cayman Islands    DR: in the Dominican Republic
EC: in Ecuador    GU: in Guatemala    JM: in Jamaica    MX: in Mexico    MX(YU): in the Yucatan area of Mexico
PN: Panama    PR: Puerto Rico

(ph): species with a photo in the FONT web-site

In this list, Spanish names follow the letter S: Portuguese names follow the letter P:

Another code throughout the list here, (TPCR:xx), refers to pages with a photograph of the particular species
in the book "Tropical Plants of Costa Rica, A Guide to Native and Exotic Flora" by Willow Zuchowski, with photographs by Turid Forsyth, 2007.

Other Links:

Information about Upcoming FONT Birding & Nature Tours:
in the Caribbean in Central America in South America (Brazil and Ecuador)

or by month in: 2015 2016 or: by geographic locations worldwide

Lists and Photo Galleries in this Website of Other Nature:

Birds in: the Caribbean Central America South America (Brazil) South America (Ecuador)

A List and Photo Gallery of Hummingbirds in 2 parts

Mammals: the Caribbean Central America South America

Butterflies and Moths in: the Caribbean Central America South America

Other Lists and Photo Galleries in this website relating to Plants:

Tropical Plants on West Indian Islands in the Caribbean

Fruiting Plants and Others in Brazil Orchids of the Americas

Wildflowers & Other Plants in Texas Wildflowers & Other Plants in Eastern North America

Desert Plants of the Southwest US & northern Mexico

Northern Plants in Alaska, Iceland, & the mountains of Hokkaido, Japan
(with some notes about medicinal and edible plants)

Links to Other Lists & Photo Galleries of Plants Directory of Photos in this Website

Books that have been sources for this list include:
"Aves Brasileiras e Plantas que as Atraem" by Johan Dalgas Frisch and Christian Dalgas Frisch, 2005
"Botanica's Pocket Orchids" by various authors, 2007 (with over 1200 species listed)
"Brazil, Amazon and Pantanal - the Ecotraveler's Wildlife Guide" by David Pearson and Les Beletsky, 2002
"Brazilian Fruits and Cultivated Exotics" by Harri Lorenzi, Luis Bacher, Marco Lacerda, Sergio Sartori, 2006
"The Butterflies of Hispaniola" by Albert Schwartz, 1989.
"Fruits and Vegetables of the Caribbean" by M Bourne, G. Lennox and S. Seddon, 2006
"Hispaniola" by Eladio Fernandez, 2007
"Hummingbirds, a Life-size Guide to Every Species" by Michael Fogden, Marianne Taylor, and Sheri Williamson, 2014
"A Naturalist in Costa Rica" by Alexander Skutch, 1971
"Threatened Plants of the Cayman Islands - the Red List" by Frederic Burton, 2008.
"Tropical Plants of the World" by Jens Rohwer, 2002
"Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling, 2014

About 50 color illustrations in this 3-part list are from the book "Flowers of Guatemala" by Carol Rogers Chickering.
Most of the illustrations were done about 50 years ago in 1964-1965. The book was published in 1973.

Another book that has been a valuable source for information here is "Tropical Plants of Costa Rica, A Guide to Native and Exotic Flora" by Willow Zuchowski, with photographs by Turid Forsth, 2007.
As noted above, the code (TPCR:xx) in this list refers to pages with a photograph of a particular plant.

A forest on the other side of a river in southern Ecuador
photographed during a FONT tour in April 2014.
There may well be more plant species in this forest
than there are in this list.
(photo by Marie Gardner)

     A List of Tropical Plants of the Americas, Part 3:


       Family OCHNACEAE  (Wild Plane family)

        Genus CESPEDESIA

Cespedesia macrophylla ______ CR

Genus OURATEA
Ouratea crassinervia ______ CR
Ouratea lucens ______ CR
Ouratea valerii ______ CR

Family OLACACEAE

Genus CHAUNOCHITON
Chaunochiton kappleri ______ CR

Genus HEISTERIA
Heisteria acuminata ______ CR
Heisteria concinna ______ CR
Heisteria longipes ______ CR

Genus MINQUARTIA
Minquartia guianensis ______ CR

Genus SCHOEPTIA
Schoeptia chrysophylloides ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Schoeptia schreberi ______ CR

Genus XIMENIA
Ximenia americana ______ CR

Family OLEACEAE (Olives, Jasmines)

Genus CHIONANTHUS
Chionanthus caymanensis ______ CY (endemic to the Cayman Islands) (endangered)
Ironwood

Genus FORESTIERA
Forestiera segregata ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (endangered in CY)

Genus LINOCIERA
Linociera panamensis ______ CR

Family ONAGRACEAE (Willowherb, Evening Primrose)

Genus FUCHSIA
Fuchsia hybrida ______ BR
P: Brinco-de-princesa

Brinco-de-princesa is a hybrid from Fuchsia corymbiflora, Fuchsia fuigens, and Fuchsia magellanica.
It is especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Fuchsia jimenezii ______ CR in Costa Rica common on the continental divide at Monteverde
Fuchsia paniculata ______ CR (TPCR:324) occurs from Mexico to Panama
a fuchsia
S: Achiotillo
Fuchsia splendens (ph) ______ GU

Fuchsia splendens,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"
Fuchsia triphylla (*) (ph) ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, in mountains of Cordillera Central, Neiba, Bahoruco)
S: Cocaria

Fuchsia triphylla is called Honeysuckle Fuchsia.

Fuchsia triphylla photographed during a FONT tour in the Dominican Republic.
The plant was observed being a food source for the hummingbird, the Hispaniolan Emerald,
(photo by Marie Gardner)

Family ORCHIDACEAE (Orchids)

The numerous ORCHIDS of the world can be said to be of 3 types:
1) Many grow on trees. They are EPIPHYTES.
2) Those that grow on rocks are LITHOPHYTES.
3) Those that grow in the ground are TERRESTRIALS.

There are so many different species of orchids throughout the New World, we have them in a separate list, in which there are now 562 species. Here's the link:    WILD ORCHIDS OF THE AMERICAS

In all, there are over 25,000 species of ORCHIDS in the world. In the United States, there are about 250 species of ORCHIDS, with about half of them in Florida.
In Brazil, the largest country in the Americas south of the United States, there are about 2,500 species of ORCHIDS.
But in other countries in South America, which are smaller, but in which there are the Andes Mountains, there are even more species of ORCHIDS.
There are about 3,000 ORCHIDACEAE species in Colombia.
And there are about 4,000 species in ORCHIDACEAE in Ecuador. Thus, that small country has more than one-tenth of the world's diversity of ORCHIDS.

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are about 350 described species in ORCHIDACEAE.

Even on the small Cayman islands in the Caribbean, alone, there are 26 species of native orchids.
One of them, the endangered Ghost Orchid, is in the photo below.

Ghost Orchid

The following three photographs of orchids were taken during the FONT tour in Ecuador in April 2014:

The orchid Elleanthus robustus photographed
at Copalinga, in southern Ecuador
(photo by Marie Gardner)

An Epidendrum orchid photographed during
in the botanical garden in Loja   (photo by Marie Gardner)

This Orchid, Sobralia rosea, was seen commonly
on mid-level slopes of the Andes, when we were
in southern Ecuador during that FONT tour in April 2014.
(photo by Marie Gardner)

Family OROBANCHACEAE (Broomrapes) (was in SCROPHULARIACEAE)

Genus AGALINIS
Agalinis kingsii ______ CY (endemic to Grand Cayman Island) (critically endangered)

Genus CASTILLEJA - Paintbrushes
Castilleja tenuifolia (ph) ______ GU
Indian Paintbrush (or Painted Cup)

Indian Paintbrush, Castilleja tenuifolia,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"

Family OXALIDACEAE

Genus AVERRHOA
Averrhoa carambola ______ CR (TPCR:188) originally from Indonesia, now cultivated many warm places in the world
Star Fruit
S: Carambola

Family PAPAVERACEAE (Poppies)

Genus ARGEMONE
Argemone mexicana ______ CY (native to Central America)
Devil's Fig (or Mexican Poppy) (an herbaceous plant)
Thom Thistle (name in CY)
P: Cardo Santo
S: Cardo Amarillo, or Chicalote

Genus BOCCONIA
Bocconia frutescens ______ CR

Family PASSIFLORACEAE (Passionflowers)

includes TURNERACEAE

Genus PASSIFLORA

There are about 450 different species of PASSIFLORA with many distributed throughout the tropics, with some as well in temperate countries.
The PASSIFLORA flowers have a characteristic and unique shape (see photo below), and the arrangement of the floral parts has been said to symbolize the cross of the crucifixion, hence the name "Passion Fruit".
Some species have small ball-shaped fruits.
One species in particular, Passiflora edulis (var. edulis) is grown commercially for its fruit.

Of the approximately 450 species of PASSIFLORA, about 60 species are considered edible.

Some members of the PASSIFLORA genus are host plants for the butterfly: Agraulis vanillae, the Gulf Fritillary.
PASSIFLORA species are also visited for their nectar by the hummingbird, the Long-tailed Hermit.
Passiflora adenopoda ______ CR

Passiflora adenopoda is one of the Passiflora host plants for the caterpillars of the butterfly Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing.
The caterpillars feed on the leaves of this plant as well as other Passifloras that are either toxic or deadly to other butterflies.
Other Passifloras (noted below) that are fed upon by the caterpillars of the Zebra Longwing include: Passiflora biflora, Passiflora lobata, Passiflora menispermifolia, and Passoflora pulchella.

the Zebra Longwing butterfly

Passiflora adenopoda is also a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterfly Dione moneta, the Mexican Silverspot.
Passiflora alata ______ CR

Passiflora alata is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius ismenius, the Tiger-striped Longwing.
Passiflora ambigua ______ CR

Passiflora ambigua is a host plant for the butterfly Eueides isabella, the Isabella's Longwing, also known as the Isabella's Tiger or Isabella's Heliconian.
It is also a host plant for the caterpillars of Heliconius ismenius, a butterfly known as the Tiger-striped Longwing, or Tiger Heliconian, and of Heliconius (or Laparus) doris, the Doris Longwing.
Passiflora apetala ______ CR

Passiflora apetala is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius clysonymus, the Montane Longwing.
Passiflora auriculata ______ CR

Passiflora auriculata is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterflies: Heliconius hecale, the Hecale Longwing, and Heliconius sara, the Sara Longwing.
Passiflora biflora ______ CR
Two-flowered Passionflower

Passiflora biflora is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterflies: Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing,
Heliconius erato, the Crimson-patched Longwing, Heliconius clysonymus, the Montane Longwing, and Heliconius cydno, the Cydno Longwing.
Passiflora capsularis ______ CR

Passiflora capsularis is a host plant for caterpillars of the butterfly Dione moneta, the Mexican Silverspot.
Passiflora coriacea ______ CR

Passiflora coriacea is a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterfly Heliconius erato, the Crimson-patched Longwing, or Erato Heliconian.
Passiflora costaricensis ______ CR

Passiflora costaricensis is a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterfly Heliconius erato, the Crimson-patched Longwing.
Passiflora cupraea ______ CY
Passiflora edulis (*) (ph) ______ CR EC (TPCR:190) originally grew in South America
Passion Fruit (climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Maracuya

Passiflora edulis is also called the Purple Granadilla.
It is a vine-like plant, which climbs by means of long, green tendrils, grown commercially for its fruits, which become purple when ripe. The flesh is usually eaten raw in fruit salads.
The pulp can also be squashed and the juice made into a cool and refreshing drink.
It is also used to make an ice cream with a distinctive flavor.

A Passion Fruit photographed during the FONT tour
in western Ecuador in May 2014.
This fruit was growing on the side of the home
of our Ecuadorian friend, Wilmur.
In his home, we drank a wonderful juice from the fruit.
Passiflora filipes ______ CR

Passiflora filipes is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius hecale, the Hecale Longwing.
Passiflora foetida ______ CR
S: Bombillo, or Calzoncillo, or Norbo, or Granadilla del Monte
Passiflora ligularis ______ CR (TPCR:190 the fruit) occurs from Mexico to South America
Sweet Passion Fruit
S: Granadilla
Passiflora lobata ______ CR (A synonym for Passiflora lobata is Tetrastylis lobata.)

Passiflora lobata is a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterflies: Dione moneta, the Mexican Silverspot, Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing.
Passiflora menispermifolia ______ CR

Passiflora menispermifolia is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterflies: Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing, and Heliconius melpomene, the Melpomene Longwing, or the Postman.
Passiflora microstipula ______ CR

Occurring in areas of middle elevation cloud forest, Passiflora microstipula is a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterfly Eueides lineata, the Thick-edged Longwing.
Passiflora oerstedii ______ CR

Passiflora oerstedii is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterflies: Heliconius hecale, the Hecale Longwing, and Heliconius melpomene, the Melpomene Longwing, or the Postman.
Passiflora pedata ______ CR

Passiflora pedata is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius ismenius, the Tiger-striped Longwing.
Passiflora platyloba ______ CR

Passiflora platyloba is a host plant for the butterflies: Eueides isabella, the Isabella's Longwing, Heliconius ismenius, the Tiger-striped Longwing, and Heliconius hecale, the Hecale Longwing, or Heart-shaped Heliconian.
Passiflora pulchella ______ CR

Passiflora pulchella is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing.
Passiflora quadrangularis ______ CR originally grew in the tropical Western Hemisphere
Giant Granadilla (a climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Badea, or Granadilla Real
Passiflora talamancensis ______ CR

In Costa Rica, Passiflora talamancensis is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly, Dryadula phaetusa, the Banded Longwing, or Banded Orange Heliconian, as are other plants in Passiflora genus.
It is also the host plant for caterpillars of the butterfly Heliconius erato, the Crimson-patched Longwing, or the Erato Heliconian.
Passiflora tica ______ CR

In Costa Rica, Passiflora tica is thought to be a host plant (or the host plant) for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius eleuchia, the White-edged Longwing.
That butterfly, and that plant in Costa Rica occurs in the foothills of the Caribbean slope (in the area of La Virgen del Socorro canyon).
Passiflora tripartita (var. molissima) (*) (ph) ______ (originally grew in the Andes of South America)
Banana Poka (or Banana Passion Fruit) (climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Curuba de Castilla, or Tacso, or Tumbo

Passion Flower
Passiflora suberosa ______ CY
Corky-stemmed Passionflower
Wild Pumpkin (name in CY)

Passiflora suberosa is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Heliconius charithonia, the Zebra Longwing.
Passiflora vitiflora ______ CR (TPCR:245)
S: Granadilla del Monte

In Costa Rica, two species of heliconiine butterflies, Heliconius cydno and Heliconius hecale, often lay their eggs on the tendrils and leaf tips of Passiflora vitiflora.
Two other butterflies, Eueides aliphera and Philaethria dido, lay their eggs on the mature leaves of the plant, and their larvae feed on those older leaves.
Passiflora sp. ______ DR

Genus TURNERA (in TURNERACEAE)
Turnera diffusa ______ CY
Turnera triglandulosa ______ CY (endemic to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac Islands)
Turnera ulmifolia ______ CY (originally grew in the tropical Western Hemisphere)
Bahama Buttercup (herbaceous plant)
Cat Bush (name in CY)
P: Albina, or Chanana
S: Marilope

Family PHYTOLACCACEAE (Pokeweed)

Genus RIVINA
Rivina humilis (ph) ______ CY
Rouge Plant
Fowl Berry (name in CY)

Another name for Rivina humilis is Pigeonberry.

A Rouge Plant, with its small red berry
(photo courtesy of Michiel Koomen)

Genus TRICHOSTIGMA
Trichostigma octandrum ______ CY

Family PINACEAE (Pines)

Genus PINUS
Pinus occidentalis (*) (ph) ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, in Cordillera Central and the Bahoruco mountain ranges)
Hispaniolan Pine
S: Pino Criollo, or Pino de Cuaba

A Pine Warbler in a Hispaniolan Pine.
The tree is endemic to the Caribbean island of Hispaniola.
The bird is a resident subspecies endemic to the island,
Setophaga pinus chrysoleuca.
(photo by Marie Gardner during a FONT tour in the Dominican Republic)

Family PIPERACEAE (Pepper)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are over 50 described species in PIPERACEAE.

Genus PEPEROMIA
Peperomia glabella ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)
Peperomia obtusifolia ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Vine Balsam (name in CY)
Peperomia pseudopereskiifolia ______ CY (nearly endemic to the Cayman Islands) (endangered)
Peperomia simplex ______ CY (nearly endemic to the Cayman Islands) (critically endangered)

Genus PIPER

PIPER is a very common and widespread genus of forest understory shrubs in the American Tropics.
There are more than 120 species in Brazil.
An erect, candle-like, flowering-structure makes such species easy to identify.
Bats, instead of insects or birds, are pollinators for many of these shrubs. Short-tailed Fruit Bats are the main dispersers of its fruits.
Black Pepper is harvested from a species in this grouping.

Phyllostomatid bats of the genus Carollia, such as Carollia pesspicillata, are "piperphiles", often basing the bulk of their diet on Piper fruits.
Piper amalago ______ CY CR at Santa Rosa NP, most common in shady understory or relatively mature forest
Pepper Elder (name in CY)
Piper arboreum ______ CR
Piper augustum ______ CR
Piper auritum ______ CR MX(YU) (TPCR:64)
Anise Piper (or Mexican Pepperleaf)
S: Anisillo, or Hinojo, or Sabalero, or Hoja de la Estrella, or Hoja Santa, or Hierba Santa, or Momo, or Acuyo
also: Hoja de Estrella (in Costa Rica)

Another name for Piper auritum is Root Beer Plant.
Piper biolleyi ______ CR
Piper biseriatum ______ CR
Piper carrilloanum ______ CR
Piper cenocladum ______ CR
Piper colonense ______ CR
Piper euryphyllum ______ CR
Piper imperiale ______ CR
Piper jacquemontianum ______ CR at Santa Rosa NP, restricted to humid ravines
Piper marginatum ______ CR at Santa Rosa NP, most common in open, disturbed habitats
Piper nigrum ______ CR (TPCR:191) in Costa Rica, a cultivated plant
Black Pepper
S: Pimienta
Piper obliquum ______ CR
Piper pseudofuligineum ______ CR at Santa Rosa NP, a habitat generalist
Piper reticularum ______ CR
Piper sancti-felicis ______ CR
Piper sinugaudens ______ CR
Piper tuberculatum ______ CR

Family PLANTAGINACEAE (Plantains, not related to the Banana)

Genus PLANTAGO

Plants in PLANTAGO are a favorite food source for the hummingbird, the Rufous Sabrewing, Campylopteres rufus, in Guatemala and nearby Mexico.

Family POACEAE, or GRAMINEAE (Grasses)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are over 350 described species in POACEAE.

Genus CHUSQUEA

Approximately 20 species of wild bamboo in Costa Rica are in the genus CHUSQUEA.
Chusquea patens ______ CR (TPCR:300) occurs in Costa Rica and western Panama
S: Canuela
Chusquea subtessellata ______ CR (TPCR:325)
S: Batamba

Batamba is a dwarf bamboo that grows in high, open, burned-over areas.

Chusquea subtessellata was Swallenochloa subtessellata.

Genus DANTHONIA
Danthonia dominguensis (*) (ph) ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, in mountains of Cordillera Central, Neiba, Bahoruco)
S: Pajon

Danthonia dominguensis, a Tussock Grass,
at 8,000 feet above sea level in the Dominican Republic
(photo by Marie Gardner)

Genus DENDROCALAMUS
Dendrocalamus giganteus ______ (native to southeast Asia, now in parks in the tropics)
Giant Bamboo

Genus HYPARRHENIA
Hyparrhenia rufa ______ CR (TPCR:277) (originally from Africa)
S; Jaragua

Genus LASIACIS
Lasiacis procerrima ______ CR

Lasiacis procerrima, and Paspalum virgatum (below, in this list) are host plants for the butterflies of the butterfly, Eryphanis lycomedon. formerly Eryphanis polyxena lycomedon, the Purple Mort Bleu.

Genus ORYZA
Oryza sativa (*) (ph) ______ CR DR (native to Asia)
Asian Rice (or Rice)
S: Arroz

Rice being cultivated on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola,
the rice was native to Asia, the Cattle Egrets in the photo native to Africa.
(photo by Marie Gardner)

Genus PASPALUM
Paspalum virgatum ______ CR

Genus SACCHARUM
Saccharum officinarum (*) ______ CR DR PR (TPCR:192) now widely cultivated, thought to have originated in New Guinea
Sugarcane
P: Cana de Acucar
S: Cana de Acucar

Genus ZEA
Zea mays (*) ______  CR MX(YU)
Sweet Corn
S: Maize (or Maiz)

"Maize" is not just a staple food of the people of Mexico. It has played a significant role in all aspects of their lives since pre-Hispanic times.
Among the Mayas on the Yucatan Peninsula, Maize is considered a sacred food and is treated with great respect. It is often called "Gracia", meaning "grace".
Maize and its multiple manifestations are symbols of societies that have evolved in the Americas for more than 10,000 years. The plant was domesticated in Mesoamerica although exactly where is debated.
Domesticated Maize was first derived from a wild species known as "Teocintle".

Today, rural life in the Yucatan region revolves around Maize - its planting, harvest, and conversion into food, along with its use in ceremonies, religion, and art.

One of the most notable and interesting things relating to Maize, or Corn, is its tremendous diversity. There are nearly 60 different races in Mexico alone. Globally, there are many more.

"Maiz" is the word applied to the dried kernel.
"Elote" is the word used to refer to fresh corn on the cob.
"Mazorea" refers to the cob itself.

Many parts of the Maize plant are used.
The husks are occasionally used in the Yucatan for wrapping tamales, although banana leaves are more commonly.
The silk from cobs is used to make an infusion employed in traditional medicine.
Leaves and cobs are used in handicrafts.
The stripped cob is used as a combustible.

Maize is transformed into a more flavorful and digestible substance through a process known as nixtamalization, which involves boiling dried maize in water mixed with "cal", that is calcium hydroxide.
Once treated and softened in that way, it is ground into a thick dough known as "masa".
Masa then becomes the fundamental element in Mexican gastronomy, used for making tortillas, tamales, and even beverage.
In Yucatan cuisine, Masa is often used as a thickener for meat or poultry stocks to create a kind of gray or sauce served with many dishes.
(from the book: "Yucatan, recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)

Family PODOCARPACEAE (Podocarpus)

PODOCARPUS forest is a feature of the high Andes Mountains in South America, where unfortunately much has been cut for use as timber.

PODOCARPUS is not to be confused with Polylepis, in the Andes, in the family ROSACEAE.

Genus PODOCARPUS
Podocarpus guatemalensis ______ CR

In Costa Rica, Podocarpus guatemalensis occurs in lowlands and hills, up to 3,000 feet above sea level, on the Osa Peninsula and in the northern part of the country.
Podocarpus oleifolius (or Podocarpus macrostachus) ______ CR (TPCR:326) occurs from Mexico to South America
Podocarp
S: Cipresillo

Family POLEMONIACEAE (Phloxes)

Genus COBAEA
Cobaea scandens ______ GU (native to the Western Hemisphere)
Cathedral Bells (or "Mexican Ivy") (climbing plant with leaves pinnately divided or tripartite)
Cobaea villosa (ph) ______ GU
Cup-and-Saucer
S: Herba Acorda

Cup-and-Saucer, Cobaea villosa,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"

Family POLYGALACEAE (Milkworts)

Genus POLYGALA
Polygala propinqua ______ CY (nearly endemic to the Cayman Islands) (critically endangered in CY)

On Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Polygala propinqua seems to be an important food source for the bird, the Western Spindalis, Spindalis zena salvini.
Birds of that species have been observed returning repeatedly to Polygala bushes, feeding on the leaves. Over time, from that activity, the bushes become shredded, and the birds move on.

Family POLYGONACEAE (Buckwheats)

Genus ANTIGONON
Antigonon leptopus ______ CR DR (TPCR:149) native seemingly to Mexico, now cultivated throughout the Neotropics and Caribbean
Coral Vine, or Bride's Tears, or "Mexican Creeper" (a climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Cadena de Amor, or Colacion, or Bellisima

In the Dominican Republic, Antigonon leptopus is a food plant for the butterflies: Papilio aristor, the Scarce Haitian Swallowtail, Strymon istapa, the Mallow Scrub-Hairstreak, Hamadryas amphichloe, the Pale Cracker, Junonia genoveva, the Mangrove Buckeye, Anartia lytrea, the Goddard's Anartia, Danaus gilippus, the Queen, Danaus eresimus, the Soldier.

Genus COCCOLOBA
Coccoloba caracasana ______ CR
Coccoloba floribunda ______ CR
Coccoloba padiformis ______ CR
Coccoloba tuerckheimii ______ CR
Coccoloba uvifera (*) (ph) ______ CY (originally grew along coasts in tropical America) (critically endangered in CY)
Sea Grape (tree with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Uvero de Playa

The Sea Grape is certainly characteristic of many Caribbean beaches, and visitors soon become familiar with its smooth, leathery leaves with their prominent reddish veins.
The male and female flowers occur on separate plants. After fertilization, the fruits develop into purple, grape-like clusters. These clusters do not ripen evenly.

The Sea Grape varies depending upon the environment in which it is growing.
On exposed shores, it grows as a sprawling shrub.
In more sheltered areas, it grows as a tree, reaching a height of about 50 feet.
The sour fruits are edible when ripe, but they are too sour to be pleasant.
They contain large amounts of pectin which makes them suitable for making a good jelly and jam preserves.
On some Caribbean islands, they are made into soup.

Sea Grape, showing a cluster of the fruit
and the leathery leaves with reddish veins
(photo courtesy of Michiel Koomen)

Genus GYMNOPODIUM
Gymnopodium floribundum ______ MX(YU)
Dzidzilche (Mayan name)

Gymnopodium floribundum is a plant unique to the Yucatan region, with no common English name.
It is a woody bush that from March through May produces tiny pale green flowers with a lightly sweet floral fragrance.
Dzidzilche Honey, from the plant, is a pale amber in color. It has an unmistakable tropical flavor and a low moisture content, making it one of the world's finest honeys.
(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)

Genus POLYGONUM
Polygonum densiflorum ______ CY
Polygonum punctatum ______ CY

Genus RUPRECHTIA
Rupprechtia costata ______ CR

Genus TRIPLARIS
Triplaris melaenodendron ______ CR GU
S: Mulato

During the early months of the year, one may see Triplaris melaenodendron in all its glory when it is in fruit. It has attractive sprays of seed cases with "wings" rather like those of maples.
The plant is deciduous and for at least part of the year it has no conspicuous characteristics. When the large leaves grow and the small whitish flowers are in bloom, the tree becomes recognizable.
Any doubt can be resolved by breaking off a branch: a Triplaris branch is hollow and full of voracious ants.
Another characteristic is that the stumps send up new sprouts, which form a little thicket.
The common name mulato derives from the mottled bark.

Triplaris melaenodendron is common in many parts of the Pacific Plains of Guatemala, where it is one of the most characteristic species, and where it affords displays of color in late January and February.

Family POLYPODIACEAE (Polypod Ferns, including Maiden-hair Ferns)

included here in this grouping is the family THELYPTERIDACEAE, the Beech Ferns,
in the genus THELYPTERIS

Genus ACROSTICHUM
Acrostichum aureum ______ CY
Acrostichum danaeifolium ______ CY

Genus ADIANTUM (Maiden-hair Ferns)
Adiantum concinnum ______ CR

Adiantum concinnum is the most abundant maiden-hair fern in Central America. About 30 species of maiden-hair ferns occur in Costa Rica.
Adiantum melanoleucum ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and the Cayman Islands) (endangered in CY)
Adiantum tenerum ______ CY (endangered in CY)

Genus BLECHNUM
Blechnum serrulatum ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)

Genus CHEILANTHES
Cheilanthes microphylla ______ CY

Genus NEPHROLEPIS
Nephrolepis biserrata ______ CY
Nephrolepis exaltata ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands)

Genus POLYPODIUM
Polypodium aureum ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)
Polypodium dispersum ______ CY
Polypodium heterophyllum ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (endangered in CY)
Polypodium phyllitidis ______ CY
Cow Tongue (name in CY)
Polypodium polypodioides ______ CY
Resurrection Fern

Genus PTERIS
Pteris longifolia (var. bahamensis) ______ CY

Genus TECTARIA
Tectaria incisa ______ CY

Genus THELYPTERIS
Thelypteris augescens ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (endangered in CY)
Thelypteris interrupta ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Thelypteris kunthii ______ CY
Thelypteris reptans ______ CY

Family PONTEDERIACEAE (Water Hyacinth, Pickerel-weed)

There are about 35 species in PONTEDERIACEAE. All are freshwater aquatics, but only Eichhornia crassipes is truly free-floating.

Genus EICHHORNIA
Eichhornia crassipes (*) ______ BR CR (TPCR:254) (native to South America, probably originated in Brazil)
Water Hyacinth
P: Aguape, or Jacinto Aquatico
S: Buchon de Agua, or Jacinto de Agua, or Camalote, or Choreja, or Lirio Aquatico, or Lirio de Agua.

In the Amazon, the flowers of the Water Hyacinth are pollinated by long-tongued bees.
Amazonian Manatees feed on the plants.

Family PORTULACACEAE (Purslanes)

Genus PORTULACA
Portulaca halimoides ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)
Portulaca pilosa ______ CY
Ten O'Clock (name in CY)
Portulaca rubricaulis ______ CY
Portulaca tuberculata ______ CY

Family PRIMULACEAE (Primroses)

includes THEOPHRASTACEAE

Genus JACQUINIA
Jacquinia keyensis ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (endangered in CY)
Wash Wood (name in CY)
Jacquinia proctorii ______ CY (nearly endemic to the Cayman Islands) (critically endangered in CY)
Jacquinia pungens ______ CR
False Evergreen Needle Bush
S: Burriquita, or Siempre Viva, or Siempre Verde

In Costa Rica, Jacquinia pungens has a fully leaved crown during the dry season, and a leafless crown in the rainy season.

Family PROTEACEAE (Macadamia and allies)

Genus GREVILLEA
Grevillea banksii ______ BR
Banks' Grevillea

Grevillea banksii is especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.

Genus PANOPSIS
Panopsis costaricensis ______ CR (TPCR:301) occurs in Costa Rica and western Panama
S: Palo de Papa

Genus ROUPALA
Roupala glaberrima ______ CR
Roupala montana ______ CR

Family PSILOTACEAE (fern-like plants)

Genus PSILOTUM
Psilotum nudum ______ CY
Skeleton Fork Fern

Psilotum nudum lacks both roots and true leaves.

Family PTERIDACEAE (ferns)

Genus JAMESONIA

Plants in JAMESONIA are terrestrial ferns.
Jamesonia alsonii ______ CR
Jamesonia rotundifolia ______ CR
Jamesonia scammaniae ______ CR (TPCR:327) occurs from Costa Rica to Bolivia

In Costa Rica, Jamesonia scammaniae occurs from 8,400 to 11.400 feet above sea level in the paramo habitat, on Cerro de la Muerte, and in the Chirripo National park.
The fiddlehead at its tip is always present and not covered by long hairs as it is in Jamesonia alstonii and Jamesonia rotundifolia (both above).

Family RHAMNACEAE (Buckthorns)

Genus COLUBRINA
Colubrina arborescens ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)
Red Heart (name in CY)
Colubrina cubensis ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands)
Cajon (name in CY)
Colubrina elliptica ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Wild Guava (name in CY)
Colubrina spinosa ______ CR

Genus KARWINSKIA
Karwinskia calderoni ______ CR

Genus ZIZYPHUS
Zizyphus guatemalensis ______ CR

Family RHIZOPHORACEAE (Mangroves)

including here PELLICIERACEAE (the genus PELLICIERA)

Mangroves, or Mangles in Spanish, are a group of unrelated woody plants that grow along tropical coasts.
They generally occur in physical habitats that in temperate regions would be occupied by salt marshes.

"Mangrove" is not a precise taxonomic classification. Generally any tree that grows directly from a subtidal or intertidal substrate may be termed a mangrove.

The Black Mangrove is in a different family, ACANTHACEAE.
The White Mangrove and the Buttonwood Mangrove are in the family COMBRETACEAE.

Genus CASSIPOUREA
Cassipourea ellipitica ______ CR
Cassipourea guianensis ______ CR

Genus PELLICIERA
Pelliciera rhizophorae (*) ______ CR (TPCR:343,344) occurs from Nicaragua to Colombia, mostly along the Pacific coast.
Tea Mangrove
S: Mangle Pinuela

In Costa Rica, the Tea Mangrove is along the Pacific coast, where it is not common.
The Mangrove Hummingbird, endemic to the Costa Rican Pacific coast, lives off the large quantity of pollen produced by the prolific blooms of Pelliciera rhizophorae, the only species in its genus, which has been said to be the only genus in the family PELLICIERACEAE.

Both the Mangrove Hummingbird and its host plant, the Tea Mangrove, have been seen during FONT tours in Costa Rica.

Genus RHIZOPHORA
Rhizophora mangle (*) ______ BR CR CY (TPCR:345)
Red Mangrove
S: Mangle

The Red Mangrove occurs from Mexico to Peru, and in the West Indies, west Africa, and the southwest Pacific.
Rhizophora racemosa ______ CR grows only along the Pacific coast

Rhizophora racemosa has larger inflorescences than Rhizophora mangle, with up to 70 flowers. Rhizophora racemosa lacks the uniform covering of black dots on the underside of the leaf. It is more apt to be in the inner forest.

Family ROSACEAE (Rose)

Genus POLYLEPIS
Polylepis sp. ______ EC PE

In the High Andes of South America, Polylepis is the favored plant of the bird, the Giant Conebill, Oreomanes fraseri.
Both very dry and moss-covered humid Polylepis shrub, woodland, and forest are where that bird occurs.
It may on occasion visit the flowers of Puya raimondii, when adjacent to Polylepis, but in mixed forest with several tree species, the Giant Conebill keeps strictly to Polylepis.

The Giant Conebill has been seen during FONT tours high in the mountains of Ecuador and Peru in stands of Polylepis.

Genus PRUNUS
Prunus annularis ______ CR
Prunus cornifolia ______ CR

Genus RUBUS

There are hundreds of RUBUS species worldwide. 13 of them are in Costa Rica, with 3 of them being non-native.

The flowers of RUBUS plants are insect-pollinated, although hummingbirds visit them. The seeds are bird-dispersed.

In the Dominican Republic, plants in RUBUS are food plants for the butterfly Danaus gilippus, the Queen.
Rubus sp. (*) ______ CR (TPCR:193,194)
Blackberry
S: Mora

Various species of Rubus sp. (or Blackberry) are found in the mountains of Costa Rica. A particularly good area for them is Cerro de la Muerte. Two species there are below, R. costaricanus and R. miser.

In Costa Rica, Mora (as the Blackberry is known) is used to make one of the most frequently encountered fruit drinks.
The berries are also made into tasty jams and ice cream.
Rubus costaricanus ______ CR
Rubus miser ______ CR

Family RUBIACEAE (Madders)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are about 275 described species in RUBIACEAE.

Genus ALIBERTIA
Alibertia edulis ______ CR

Genus ANTIRHEA
Antirhea lucida ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (critically endangered in CY)

Genus BERTIERA
Bertiera guianensis ______ CR

Genus CALYCOPHYLLUM
Calycophyllum candidissimum ______ CR (TPCR:278) occurs from Mexico to northern South America, and in the West Indies
Lancewood
S: Madrono

Calycophyllum candidissimum is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.

Genus CATESBAEA
Catesbaea parviflora ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)

Genus CEPHAELIS

Plants in the genus CEPHAELIS, referred to as "hot lips" are fed upon by the butterfly Adelpha cytherea.
Another plant called "hot lips" is below in this list in the genus PSYCHOTRIA.
Cephaelis elata ______ CR
Cephaelis tomentosa ______ CR

Genus CHIMARRHIS
Chimarrhis latifolia ______ CR
Chimarrhis parviflora ______ CR

Genus CHIOCOCCA
Chococca alba ______ CY
Snow Berry (name in CY)
Chococca parvifolia ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (vulnerable in CY)

Genus CHIONE
Chione costaricensis ______ CR

Genus CHOMELIA
Chomelia sponosa ______ CR

Genus CINCHONA
Cinchona officinalis ______ occurs in South America
Quinine

Cinchona officinalis was exploited heavily in the 1800s as a source of natural quinine.
Cinchona pubescens ______ CR (TPCR:197) occurs from Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil
Quinine, or Red Cinchona
P: Quina do Amazonas, or Quineira
S: Quina, or Cascarilla, or Cinchona

Cinchona pubescens has the widest distribution of all Cinchona species. In Ecuador, it occurs from 900 to 11,700 feet above sea level, also a wide variation.

Cinchona pubescens has become an invasive species where planted outside its native range, especially on tropical islands.

Genus COFFEA
Coffea arabica (*) (ph) ______ BR CR GU PR (TPCR:195,196)   originally said to have grown in Africa, in Ethopia
Coffee (a bush with simple, alternate leaves)
P: Cafe
S: Cafe, also Cafeto

In the tropics, Coffee is grown at rather high elevations, as the tree requires fairly cool temperatures. It also needs a moderate rainfall and some shade.
Places during FONT tours where Coffee has been seen commonly in cultivation include Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, and Puerto Rico.
In the Caribbean, Coffee grown in Jamaica, in the Blue Mountains, has been especially good to drink.



Coffee, photographed during a FONT tour in the highlands of Guatemala.
Where we've seen such shade-grown coffee during our tours, we've seen,
especially during the winter and spring, many passerine birds.
More common than most of the Neotropical migrants at such places,
in Central America, has been the Tennessee Warbler.
(photo by Marie Gardner)

In the Dominican Republic, Coffea arabica is a food plant for the butterfly Anartia lytrea, the Goddard's Anartia.

Genus COUSSAREA
Coussarea austin-smithii ______ CR
Coussarea impetiolaris ______ CR
Coussarea talamancana ______ CR
Coussarea taurina ______ CR

Genus CUBANOLA
Cubanola domingensis ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, along the northern coast) (rare)
S: Campanita, or Cubanola

Genus DUROLA
Durola panamensis ______ CR

Genus ELAEAGIA
Elaeagia auriculata ______ CR

Genus ERITHALIS
Erithalis fruticosa ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Black Candlewood (name in CY)

Genus ERNODEA
Ernodea littoralis ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)
Guana Berry (name in CY)

Genus EXOSTEMA
Exostema caribaeum ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Exostema mexicana ______ CR

Genus FARAMEA
Faramea occidentalis ______ CR CY (critically endangered in CY)
Faramea quercetorum ______ CR
Faramea suerrensis ______ CR
Faramea talamancarum ______ CR

Genus FERDINANDUSA
Ferdinandusa panamensis ______ CR

Genus GENIPA - Genip-trees

Plants in GENIPA are fed upon by the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.
Genipa americana ______ CR (TPCR:198)

The caterpillar of the day-flying Titan Sphinx Moth, Aellopos titan, feeds on genipa leaves.

Genus GONZALAGUNIA
Gonzalagunia rosea ______ CR

Genus GUETTARDA
Guettarda elliptica ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Guettarda macrosperma ______ CR
Guettarda poasana ______ CR

Genus HAMELIA
Hamelia cuprea ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (vulnerable in CY)
Hamelia patens ______ BR CR (TPCR:100) occurs in Central America, South America, the West Indies, Mexico, and south Florida in the US
Firebush
P: Amelia
S: Zorrillo Real

Hamelia patens is especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Hamelia xerocarpa ______ CR

Genus HILLIA

Some species in HILLIA have fragrant, white flowers that attract hawkmoths.
Others, such as Hillia triflora (below), have reddish flowers that attract hummingbirds.
Hillia triflora ______ CR (TPCR:302) occurs from southern Mexico to Colombia
S: Tres Flores
Hillia valeri ______ CR

Genus IXORA

Plants in IXORA are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.

In the Dominican Republic, IXORA species are food plants for the butterflies: Battus polydamas, the Gold Rim Swallowtail, Papilio machaonides, the Machaonides Swallowtail, Strymon istapa, the Mallow Scrub Hairstreak.
Ixora chinensis ______ BR
Ixora coccinea ______ BR CR (TPCR:151) originated in India
Ixora macrothyrsa ______ BR
Ixora nicaraguensis ______ CR

Genus LADENBERGIA
Ladenbergia valerii ______ CR

Genus MORINDA
Morinda royoc ______ CY
Yellow Root (name in CY)

Genus NOTOPLEURA
Notopleura uliginosa ______ CR (TPCR:199)   (was in the Psychotria genus)

In Costa Rica, Notopleura uliginosa is a conspicuous herbaceous species of the forest understory.

Genus PALICOUREA

Palicourea sp. photographed during the FONT Ecuador Tour
in April 2014, at Copalinga in the southern part of the country
(photo by Marie Gardner)
Palicourea guianensis barbinervia ______ DR

Palicourea guianensis barbinervia has small yellow flowers. In the Dominican Republic, the butterfly Papilio machaonides, the Machaonides Swallowtail has been observed being attracted to them.
Also in the Dominican Republic, Paliocourea guianensis barbainervia is a food plant for the butterfly Anartia lytrea, the Goddard's Anartia.
Palicourea sp. ______ EC (in the photo above)

Genus PENTAGONIA
Pentagonia donnell-smithii ______ CR
Pentagonia gymnopoda ______ CR

Genus PENTAS

Plants in PENTAS are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds, in Brazil.

Genus PORTLANDIA
Portlandia platantha ______ GU

Seemingly Portlandia platantha is not native to Guatemala. Portlandia is a genus of 15 to 20 species, most of which are found in the West Indies.

Genus POSOQUERIA
Posoqueria grandiflora ______ CR
Posoqueria latifolia ______ CR (TPCR:198)
Monkey Apple Tree
S: Boca de Vieja, or Guayaba de Mico, or Fruita de Mono

With its 6-inch long, narrow white blossoms that emit an intense perfume at night, Posoqueria latifolia is the quintessential flower for hawkmoths.
When touched, the anthers of the flower pop apart and the lowermost stamen dabs a visiting hawkmoth with a pollen mass.

Monkeys and birds eat the yellow-to-orange fruit of Posoqueria latifolia, or Monkey Apple Tree.

Genus PSYCHOTRIA

PSYCHOTRIA is a large genus, with about 100 species in Costa Rica.

In Central America, plants in PSYCHOTRIA are fed upon for their nectar by the hummingbird, the Violet Sabrewing, Campylopterus hemileucurus.
Plants in PSYCHOTRIA are visited for their nectar by the butterfly Heliconius eleuchia, the White-edged Longwing.
Psychotria brachiata ______ DR

In the Dominican Republic, Psychotria brachiata is a food plant for the butterfly Papilio machaonides, the Machaonides Swallowtail.
Psychotria carthaginensis ______ CR
Psychotria chiapensis ______ CR
Psychotria elata (*) (ph) ______ CR PN (TPCR:199) occurs in rain forests of Central America and northern South America in Colombia

Common names for Psychotria elata in English of "Hot Lips" or "Burning Lips" refer to the appearance of the red portion of the plant.
But that look of "lips" is only for a short while, before that part of plant opens up more, revealing the plant's white-to-yellowish flower.
The "lips" are bracts that frame a head of buds and flowers.

Psychotria elata, also known as "Hot Lips",
photographed during a FONT tour in Panama.
(photo by Marie Gardner)
Psychotria grandistipula ______ CR
Psychotria luxurians ______ CR
Psychotria nervosa ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Strong Back (name in CY)
Psychotria pilosa ______ CR (TPCR:199)

In Costa Rica, Psychotria pilosa is a conspicuous shrub on the Caribbean side of the country and on the Osa Peninsula.

Genus RANDIA
Randia aculeata ______ CY
Lance Wood (name in CY)
Randia armata ______ CR
Randia grandifolia ______ CR
Randia karstenii ______ CR
Randia lasiantha ______ CR
Randia thurberi ______ CR

Randia thurberi is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.

Genus RHACHICALLIS
Rhachicallis americana ______ CY
Sandfly Bush (name in CY)

Genus RONDELETIA
Rondeletia amoena ______ CR (TPCR:199)
S: Teresa

Rondeletia amoena, or the Teresa, is an attractive small tree in all of the mountain ranges in Costa Rica.
Rondeletia buddleioides ______ CR
Rondeletia calycosa ______ CR
Jungle Queen
S: Bouquet de la Reina
Rondeletia cordata (or Rogiera cordata) ______ GU
Rondeletia torresii ______ CR

Genus RUDGEA
Rudgea cornifolia ______ CR

Genus RUSTIA
Rustia costaricensis ______ CR

Rustia costaricensis is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.

Genus SCOLOSANTHUS
Scolosanthus roulstonii ______ CY (endemic to Grand Cayman Island) (endangered)

Genus SICKINGIA
Sickingia maxonii ______ CR
S: Guaytil Colorado

Genus SIMIRA
Simira maxonii ______ CR

Genus SPERMACOCE
Spermacoce retraquetra ______ CY

Genus STRUMPFIA
Strumpfia maritima ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)

Genus TOCOYENA
Tocoyena pittieri ______ CR

Genus UNCARIA
Uncaria tomentosa ______ CR

Uncaria tomentosa is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.

Genus WARSZEWICZIA
Warszewiczia coccinea ______ CR (TPCR:246) occurs from Central America to Bolivia, also in the West Indies
Pride of Trinidad, or Chaconia (a bush with simple, alternate leaves)
S: Barba Gallo, or Crucero, or Guna, or Sangrenaria, or Pastora de Monte

Family RUPPIACEAE (Ditch Grass, Wigeon Grass)

Genus RUPPIA
Ruppia cirrhosa ______ CY
Ruppia maritima ______ CY

Family RUTACEAE (Citrus, or Rue)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are over 50 described species in RUTACEAE.

Genus AMYRIS
Amyris elemifera ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Candlewood (name in CY)

Genus CASIMIROA
Casimiroa edulis ______ CR

Genus CITRUS

In the Dominican Republic, CITRUS species are food plants for the butterfly Papilio machaonides, the Machaonides Swallowtail.
Citrus aurantifolia ______ MX(YU) (native to the Indo-Malaysian area of southeast Asia)
Lime (tree with simple, alternating leaves)
P: Lima
S: Limon, or Limon Criollo

Among the various English names for Citrus aurantifolia are: Key Lime, West Indian Lime, Mexican Lime, "Bartender's Lime".
Other Spanish names for Citrus aurantifolia are: Limon con Semilla, Limon Agrio, Limon Pais, Limon Indio.
Citrus aurantium ______ CR MX(YU) (TPCR:200) originally from southern Asia
Sour Orange
S: Naranja agria, or Narnja amarga

Other English names for Citrus aurantium are Bitter Orange, Seville Orange, Marmalade Orange.
Citrus grandis ______ (native to Polynesian islands in the Pacific)
Shaddock
Citrus latifolia ______ MX(YU)
S: Limon Persa, or Limon sin Semilla
Citrus limetta ______ MX(YU)
Sweet Lime (or Limetta)
S: Lima de Chichi
Citrus sinensis ______ CR MX(YU)
Sweet Orange
S: Naranja Dulce, or Naranja China
The hybrid of the Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis) and the Tangerine, or Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) is the Ortanique.
It first appeared in Jamaica and probably by chance.
The name reflects the origins of the fruit: a composite of orange-tangerine-unique.
It is very juicy and has a pleasant flavor.

Genus ESENBECKIA
Esenbeckia litoralis ______ CR

Genus ZANTHOXYLUM

In the Dominican Republic, ZANTHOXYLUM species are larval food plants of several species of Papilio swallowtail butterflies, including Papilio aristor, the Scarce Haitian Swallowtail.
Zanthoxylum belizense ______ CR
Zanthoxylum coriaceum ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (critically endangered in CY)
Shake Hand (name in CY)
Zanthoxylum elephantiasis ______ CR
Zanthoxylum flavum ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (critically endangered in CY)
Satinwood (name in CY)
Zanthoxylum martinicense ______ DR (in the Dominican Republic in Los Haitises National Park)
Yellow Prickle
S: Pino de Teta
Zanthoxylum mayanum ______ CR
Zanthoxylum melanostichum ______ CR
Zanthoxylum panamense ______ CR
Zanthoxylum setulosum ______ CR

Family SALICACEAE (Willows)

Genus BANARA
Banara caymanensis ______ CY (endemic to Cayman Brac and Little Cayman Islands) (critically endangered)

Genus CASEARIA
Casearia aculeata ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Thom Prickle (name in CY)
Casearia corymbosa ______ CR
S: Cerito, or Raspa, or Lengua
Casearia guianensis ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)
Wild Coffee (name in CY)
Casearia hirsuta ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Wild Coffee (name in CY)
Casearia odorata ______ CY (nearly endemic to CY) (endangered)
Casearia staffordiae ______ CY (endemic to Grand Cayman Island) (critically endangered)
Casearia sylvestris ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)

Genus SALIX
Salix humboldtiana ______ BR

Salix humboldtiana is a small species of willow occurring along white-water rivers in the mid-elevations of the Andes, but it also occurs lower in Amazon lowlands, where it is common in pure stands on sand bars and low islands of larger rivers.

Genus XYLOSMA
Xylosma bahamense ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Shake Hand (name in CY)

Genus ZUELANIA
Zuelania guidonia ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)
Jeremiah Bush (name in CY)

Family SANTALACEAE (Sandalwoods)

includes VISCACEAE

Genus PHORADENDRON
Phoradendron quadrangulare ______ CR CY parasites plants in Tiliaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Fabaceae
Scorn-the-ground (name in CY)
Phoradendron robustissimum ______ CR
Phoradendron rubrum ______ CY
Scorn-the-ground (name in CY)
Phoradendron trinervium ______ CY

Family SAPINDACEAE (Soapberry)

Genus ALLOPHYLLUS
Allophyllus cominia (var. caymanensis) ______ CY
Allophyllus edulis ______ BR
P: Chala-chala
Allophyllus occidentalis ______ CR
Allophyllus psilospermus ______ CR

Genus BLIGHIA
Blighia sapida ______ CR (TPCR:201,202) originally from western Africa, now grows on Caribbean islands and elsewhere in the Neotropics
Akee
S: Aki

The Akee tree was brought to the Caribbean islands back in the late 18th Century. It is said to have been carried on the MMS Bounty by Captain Bligh in 1787. The scientific name, Blighia, refers to him.

The fruits of the Akee develop thick, reddish-green skins that enclose shiny black seeds, each with a fleshy whitish-colored structure at its base called an aril. The aril is the edible part.
But, beware! The fruit is ready to be eaten only when it has turned red and has split open. Unripened arils and those overripe are poisonous.
"Jamaica Poisoning" is a term given to the condition resulting in death caused by eating arils at the wrong stage of development.

Jamaica is the only island in the Caribbean where Akee is eaten in any quantity. Akee and salt fish is a favorite Jamaican dish, and despite the fact that the "cod" is soaked overnight to reduce its saltiness, it still keeps enough of a salty taste to go well with the mildness of the Akee to produce, combined, a delicious taste.

Genus CARDIOSPERMUM
Cardiospermum corindum ______ CY
Cardiospermum halicacabum ______ CY

Genus CUPANIA
Cupania costaricensis ______ CR
Cupania glabra ______ CR
Cupania guatemalensis ______ CR
Cupania vernalis ______ BR
P: Camboata

Genus DIPTERODENDRON
Dipterodendron costaricense ______ CR

Genus DODONAEA
Dodonaea viscosa ______ CY

Genus EXOTHEA
Exothea paniculata ______ CR CY (endangered in CY)
Wild Ginep (name in CY)

Genus HYPELATE
Hypelate trifoliata ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (endangered in CY)
Plumperra (name in CY)

Genus MATAYBA
Matayba oppositifolia ______ CR

Genus MELICOCCUS (or TALISIA)
Melicoccus (or Talisia) jimenezii ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, only in one area of the southwest coast of the Dominican Republic)
S: Cotoperi

Genus NEPHELIUM
Nephelium lappaceum ______ CR (TPCR:203) originally from Malaysia
Rambutan
S: Mamon chino

In Costa Rica, Nephelium lappaceum is in hot, humid areas.

Genus PAULLINIA

In Costa Rica and elsewhere, plants in PAULLINIA are fed upon for their nectar by the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.
Paullinia cupana ______ BR
Guarana Vine

The fruits of the vine, or liana, of Paullinia cupana have been used by people for centuries, for example, to make a paste of the fruits and seeds combined with manioc meal and water. The resulting mixture was the dried and eaten as a stimulant.
Nowadays, this fruit is put into a popular soft drink called Guarana.
It is sold throughout Brazil in its carbonated form.
During every FONT tour in Brazil we've enjoyed drinking guarana (always saying "kind of like ginger ale").

Studies have shown that the chemicals in Guarana increase physical capacity and learning ability, and reduce anti-oxidants (aging factors).
One of the major components inside the seeds of the plant is caffeine, with the concentration of it so being high that it could be toxic to birds that eat them.
In nature, however, the seeds of Paullinia cupana are dispersed by large birds such as toucans and guans.
As long as the birds don't crack the seeds and they digest only the sugar and carbohydrates surrounding the seed, there is no release of the caffeine.
A cracked seed would not likely survive and germinate, so apparently having a toxic substance inside is the plant's way of making sure that birds, such as macaws, that crack and kill the seeds, are not attracted to the fruits.
Only birds that eat the fruits whole, enabling them to pass through the digestive system to be deposited later away from the mother tree, can successfully eat the seeds of the Guarana.
Paullinia pinnata ______ DR

In the Dominican Republic, Paullinia pinnata is a food plant for the butterfly Danaus eresimus, the Soldier.

Genus SAPINDUS
Sapindus saponaria ______ CR

Genus TALISIA
Talisia nervosa ______ CR
Talisia olivaeformis ______ MX(YU)
Honeyberry (or Genip)
S: Guaya (or Huaya), or Huayo or Guaya Pais, or Guaya Cubana, or Mamocillo

Genus THOUINIDIUM
Thouinidium decandrum ______ CR

Family SAPOTACEAE (Sapote plants)

Genus CALOCARPUM
Calocarpum mammosum ______ CR
Calocarpum viride ______ CR

Genus CHRYSOPHYLLUM
Chrysophyllum brenesii ______ CR

The leaves of Chrysophyllum brenesii is fed upon by the caterpillars of the saturniid moth, Othorene purpurascens.
Other sapotaceous host plants for that species are noted below in this list: Manilkara chicle and Pouteria exfoliata.
Chrysophyllum cainito ______ MX(YU) (grows on Caribbean islands)
Star Apple
S: Caimito (or Cainito), Zapote Caimito, Cayumito

Although the Star Apple Tree grows throughout the Caribbean, it is more common in Jamaica and Haiti.
The tree grows to about 50 feet high and it often planted as a shade tree because of its dense foliage, which is shed only very infrequently.
The tree produces small, inconspicuous purplish-white flowers.
The mature fruits are about the size of an ordinary apple and they have a dark, smooth, purplish skin when they are ripe.
The fruit gets its name from the pattern inside when it is cut in half. The star shape is produced by the arrangement of the purplish seeds in among the white, rather gelatinous flesh.
The fruit has a sweetish but mild taste. It is eaten raw, or as a desert, either as part of a fruit salad or in a mixture with pieces of orange.
Chrysophyllum panamense ______ CR

Genus DIPHOLIS
Dipholis parvifolia ______ CR

Genus MANILKARA
Manilkara chicle ______ CR (TPCR:278) (native to Mexico and Central America)
Chicle (a tree with simple, alternating leaves)
P: Sapoti
S: Chicozapote, or Nispero

It is from the tree Manilkara chicle (and the following, Manilkara zapota) that we have chewing gum Although many people know chewing gum, only very few people know the tree, which is a tall sapotaceous tree of the Neotropics that grows, among other places, in the dry forest of Costa Rica.
If one cuts through the bark of the Chicle tree into the cambium, that is the living layer just underneath the dead bark, one is cutting through a network of latex vessels that lace through all of the above-ground tissues.
The white latex that flows out (and has been collected by "chicle-tappers") was the original World War II chewing gum, minus sugar.

Manilkara chicle is a host plant for the caterpillars of the saturniid moth, Othorene purpurascens, Not many people (even less than the number who see the tree) see this caterpillar as it lives in the crown of the tree, some 60 to 120 feet above the ground.

Manilkara chicle is also a host plant for the caterpillars of another saturniid moth, Copiopterys semiramis.
Manilkara zapota ______ CR MX(YU) (native to southern Mexico, Central America, and on some Caribbean islands)
Sapodilla Tree
S: Zapote, or Chicozapote

As from the previous species, Manilkara chicle, the sap of Manikara zapota is the basic material for chewing gum.
A name for the fruit of Manikara zapota is Naseberry.

Genus MASTICHODENDRON
Mastichodendron capiri ______ CR

Genus POUTERIA
Pouteria campechiana ______ CR MX(YU)
Yellow Sapote (or Eggfruit, or Canistel)
S: Caniste, or Mamey Amarillo, or Zapote Borracho

Pouteria campechiana, or the Caniste, is a plant native to the region from southeast Mexico, including the Yucatan Peninsula, south to Panama.
The skin and flesh of the fruit are a pale yellow-orange color. The shape of the fruit varies dramatically, from spherical to an elongated egg shape, measuring from 1 and a half to 2 and a half inches in length. The flesh is sweet and soft with a color and texture that can be compared to a cooked egg yolk, hence its English name "Eggfruit".
The tree fruits from November to February.
In the Yucatan, although it is still occasionally cultivated in private orchards, it is rarely found in the markets.

Mature fruits of the Caniste are consumed fresh or pureed with milk to make a refreshing beverage.
The fruit is also used in pies, similar to pumpkin pie, as well as for cupcakes, pancakes, and preserves.

(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)
Pouteria exfoliata ______ CR

Pouteria exfoliata is a host plant for the caterpillar of the saturniid moth Othorene purpurascns, in rain forest or cloud forest in Costa Rica.
In dry forest, in that country, another sapotaceous plant, Manilkara chicle, is a host plant for the same species of moth. (See note above with Manilkara chicle.)
Pouteria fossicola ______ CR (TPCR:303) occurs from Nicaragua to Panama
Sapote
S: Zapote
Pouteria lucentifolia ______ CR
Pouteria lucuma ______ CR
Pouteria neglecta ______ CR
Pouteria sapota ______ CR MX(YU) (TPCR:203) thought to originally be from southern Mexico and/or Central America
Sapote, or Mamey Sapote
S: Mamey, or Mamey Colorado, or Zapote (in Costa Rica)
Pouteria standleyana ______ CR
Pouteria unilocularis ______ CR

Genus SIDEROXYLON
Sideroxylon foetidissimum ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies) (critically endangered in CY)
Mastic (name in CY)
Sideroxylon horridum ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Green Thorn (name in CY)
Sideroxylon salicifolium ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Wild Sapodilla

Family SCROPHULARIACEAE (Snapdragons, or Figworts)

Genus BONTIA
Bontia daphnoides ______ CY (on West Indian islands, and in South America)
Sea Olive

Bontia has been said to be in MYOPORACEAE, a generally Australian family.

On the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia, Bontia daphnoides is indigenous, quite rare along the Atlantic coast, and often close to mangroves.

Genus RUSSELIA

Plants in RUSSELIA are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Russelia equisetiformis ______ (thought to have originally grown in Mexico)
Coral Plant (bush with simple, opposite leaves)
S: Arete de la Cocinera, or Coralito, or Lluvia de Fuego.
Russelia sarmentosa ______ CR (TPCR:102) occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in parts of the Greater Antilles
Wild Firecracker
S: Coralillo

Genus SCOPARIA
Scoparia dulcis ______ CY

Genus STEMODIA
Stemodia maritima ______ CY

Family SIMAROUBACEAE

Genus ALVARADOA
Alvaradoa amorphoides ______ CR

Genus QUASSIA
Quassia amara ______ CR (TPCR:279)
Bitterwood
S: Hombre Grande

Genus PICRAMNIA
Picramnia allenii ______ CR
Picramnia carpinterae ______ CR
Picramnia latifolia ______ CR

Genus SIMABA
Simaba cedron ______ CR

Genus SIMAROUBA
Simarouba amara ______ CR
Simarouba berteroana ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola)
S: Olivo (name in DR)

In the Dominican Republic, Simarouba berteroana is in the Dunas de las Calderas, in Bani.
During FONT tours, we've been there and seen this plant found nowhere else in the world.
Simarouba glauca ______ CR
Simarouba laevis ______ (in the Caribbean)
Simarouba tulae ______ (in the Caribbean)

Family SMILACACEAE (Greenbriers)

Genus SMILAX
Smilax havanensis ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands)
Wire Wiss (name in CY)

Family SOLANACEAE (Nightshades)

In addition to the potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato, pepper, eggplant, and tobacco are in SOLANACEAE.

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are over 50 described species in SOLANACEAE.
There are approximately 120 species of SOLANACEAE native to Costa Rica.

Genus ACNISTUS
Acnistus arborescens ______ BR CR
P: Fruta de Sabia or Marianeira

Genus BRUGMANSIA
Brugmansia aurea ______   native to the northern Andes in South America
Yellow Angel's Trumpet  (a bush with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Borrachero
Brugmansia "x. candida ______ CR (TPCR:152) a hybrid, cultivated in Costa Rica
Brugmansia suaveolens ______ CR (TPCR:152) cultivated in Costa Rica
Brugmansia versicolor ______ CR (TPCR:153) cultivated in Costa Rica, quite common in and around Monteverde

Genus BRUNFELSIA
Brunfelsia grandiflora ______ CR (TPCR:154) originally from South America
Yesterday - Today - and Tomorrow
Brunfelsia pauciflora ______ BR native to Brazil
Yesterday - Today - and Tomorrow (a bush with simple, alternating leaves)

Genus CAPSICUM
Capsicum annuum ______ MX(YU) (this and C. chinense, and C. frutescens, both below, native to the tropical Western Hemisphere)
Cayenne Pepper (an herbaceous plant)
S: Chiles

"Chile" is the definitive condiment in Mexico, and it is inconceivable for most Mexicans to eat a meal without it.
There are 5 cultivated species and about 20 wild species.
The most commonly consumed chile is Capsicum annuum, which was domesticated in Mexico sometime between 6,500 and 5,000 B.C.
There is a great diversity in Capsicum annuum, with many varieties consumed only locally (in Mexico), and others that are more broadly distributed (in Mexico and elsewhere).
More widely consumed Capsicum annuum include jalapeno or cuaremeno, serrano, ancho, pasilla, guajillo, and piquin, which in the Yucatan region is known as "max".

But perhaps the most representative chile consumed in the Yucatan is from another species, Capsicum chinense (below), specifically the "habanero", unquestionably "the chile" of the Yucatan.

The hotness of Chile is measured in Scoville Heat Units. Wilbur Scoville was a U.S. scientist who, in the 1920s, systematically measured the quantity of capsaicin (the heat-producing chemical) found in a range of chiles.
The chemical is measured in parts-per-million, with the highest mark being for 100 percent pure capsaicin at 16,000,000 Units.

(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)
Capsicum chinense ______ MX(YU)
Chilis (or Chilles, or Chiles, or Chilies)
S: Habanero or in general Chiles

Scoville Heat Units for Chile Habanero: 150,000-325,000

Another variety of chile known in English as Bell Pepper, and in Spanish as Chile Dulce, has a Scoville Heat Unit of 0.
This "Bell Pepper", available in the Yucatan of Mexico, looks rather different from that in other places.
It is round and smaller than the varieties in the U.S., and characterized by vertical ridges from stem to base.
Chile Dulce is frequently grown in raised growing beds or in pots to keep them away from animals.

(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)
Also closely related to Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinenes is Capsicum frutescens, also called Chili.

Peppers grow on small bushes. As noted above, there are two main types: chili peppers and sweet peppers.
Chili Peppers are small, red or green fruits that are used to impart a hot, spicy taste to soups, stews, sauces, and curries.
Sweet Peppers grow to a larger size. They are also colored red or green, but they have a much cooler taste, and are eaten raw as part of salads. Or, they can be cooked as a vegetable in stews, or served by themselves, stuffed with finely chopped meat or other types of filling.

Genus CESTRUM
Cestrum aurantiacum (ph) ______ GU
Yellow Cestrum (or Orange Cestrum, Orange Jessamine)
S: Herba del Perro

Yellow Cestrum, Cestrum aurantiacum,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"
Cestrum diurnum ______ CY
Cestrum diurnum (var. marcianum) ______ CY (nearly endemic to the Cayman Islands)
Cestrum diurnum (var. venenatum) ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Cestrum nocturnum ______ GU
Cestrum megalophyllum ______ CR
Cestrum racemosum ______ CR
Cestrum rugulosum ______ CR

Genus CYPHOMANDRA
Cyphomandra hartwegii ______ CR

Genus GOETZEA
Goetzea ekmanii ______ DR (endemic to Hispaniola, along the banks of the Cumayasa River)

Genus PHYSALIS
Physalis philadelphica ______ MX(YU)
Tomatillo (or Husk Tomato)
S: Tomatillo, or Tomate de Cascara, or Tomate Verde

In the Yucatan region of Mexico, the Spanish words "Tomate" and "Jitomate" (for Solanum lycopersicum, below) are virtually interchangeable.
In the rest of Mexico, however, "Jitomate" is the word used for the red tomato, and "Tomate" refers to the species known in the US as the Tomatillo.
(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)

Genus SOLANDRA
Solandra longiflora ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Solandra maxima ______ (native to Mexico)
Cup of Gold (climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: "Copa de Oro"

Genus SOLANUM

Potatoes and Eggplants are among the nonpoisonous and economically important plants in this huge genus. (W)

In the Dominican Republic, SOLANUM species are food plants for the butterfly Papilio androgeus, the Androgeus Swallowtail.
Solanum accrescens ______ CR
Solanum antillarum ______ CR
Solanum arboreum ______ CR
Solanum bahamense ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands)
Solanum brenesii ______ CR
Solanum havanense ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands)
Solanum hazenii ______ CR
Solanum lanceifolium ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)
Solanum lycopersicum ______ MX(YU)
Tomato
S: Tomate, Jitomate, Tomate Rojo

The Tomato is undoubtedly one of the most used fruits in the world. It is a New World species, not arriving in Europe until the 1500s.

In most of Mexico, as in the Yucatan region (as noted above with Physalis philadelphica), the word "Jitomate" is used to denote the red tomato, while "Tomate" refers to the green Tomatillo.

There have always been many varieties of the Tomato, and with modern hybrids, today there are even more, varying in size, shape, sweetness, acidity, number of seeds, and juiciness.
In the markets of the Yucatan of Mexico, there are several varieties available: bula (spherical), salader (Roma or plum), and uva (grape), but the most common form found is round and flattened, with pronounced segments, very juicy and more acidic than other varieties.
In the Yucatan, Jitomate is grown year-round.

Probably the most common use of the tomato in the Yucatan is in a cooked sauce - "Tomate Frito", poured onto a wide range of foods, including tomales.
(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)
Solanum melongena ______ (now common on Caribbean islands)
Aubergine
Solanum nudum ______ CR
Solanum ochraceo-ferrugineum ______ CR
S: Berenjena de Past, or Berenjena de Monte

Like most species of Solanum, the flowers of Solanum ochraceo-ferrugineum produces no nectar. Thus they attract only female bees that collect pollen.
Solanum quitoense ______ CR EC (TPCR:204,205) probably originated in the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
S: Naranjilla

Naranjilla is now cultivated in Central America and northern South America. In Costa Rica, it occurs in lowlands and up to about 5,100 feet above sea level.
Solanum rantonnetii ______ (native to Paraguay and Argentina)
Blue Potato Bush (with simple, alternating leaves)

Another name for Solanum rantonnetii is Paraguay Nightshade.
Solanum rugosum ______ CR
Solanum sessiliflorum ______ CR (TPCR:205)

In Costa Rica, Solanum sessiliflorum is on the Caribbean side of the country. It is similar to Solanum quitoense (above), with less of a purple tinge.
The fruit of Solanum sessiliflorum is not green inside (as is S. quitoense), and its flavor is said to be not as good.
Solanum siparunoides ______ CR
Spider Wild Tomato
S: Tomatillo Arano
Solanum tuberosum ______ CR
Potato
S: Papa
Solanum wendlandii ______ CR (TPCR:103) occurs in Central America, was once thought to be endemic to Costa Rica
Costa Rican Nightshade, or Marriage Vine (climbing plant with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Eliza, or Volcan
Solanum wrightii ______ BR (native to Brazil)
Potato Tree (with simple, alternating leaves)
S: Arbol de Papa, or Azulillo

Genus STREPTOSOLEN
Streptosolen jamesonii ______ (native to western South America)
Firebush (bush with simple, alternating leaves)

Genus WITHERINGIA
Witheringia cuneata ______ CR
Witheringia riparia ______ CR

Family STERCULIACEAE (Cacao plants)

The genus THEOBROMA (below) has also been said to be in the family MALVACEAE.

Genus BASILOXYLON
Basiloxylon exclsum ______ CR

Genus GUAZUMA Plants in GUAZUMA were recently in the family MALVACEAE.
Guazuma invira ______ CR (TPCR:66) in Costa Rica, on the Caribbean slope
Guazuma ulmifolia ______ CR (TPCR:65)
S: Guacimo

The green fruits of Guazuma ulmifolia are edible. The leaves and fallen fruits of the plant are eaten, in Costa Rica, by White-tailed Deer, Peccaries, and Tapir, as well as by horses and cows.

Genus HERRANIA
Herrania purpurea ______ CR

Genus HELICTERES
Helicteres jamaicensis ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Screw Bush (name in CY)

Genus MELOCHIA
Melochia tomentosa ______ CY DR
Velvet Leaf (name in CY)

In the Dominican Republic, Melochia tomentosa is a food plant for the butterfly Strymon istapa, the Mallow Scrub-Hairstreak.

Genus NEOREGNELLIA
Neoregnellia cubensis ______ CY (critically endangered in CY)

Genus STERCULIA
Sterculia apetala ______ BR CR
Sterculia mexicana ______ CR
Sterculia recordiana ______ CR
Sterculia striata ______ BR

Genus THEOBROMA
Theobroma bicolor ______ CR
Theobroma cacao (*) (ph) ______ BR BZ CR MX(YU) (TPCR:206,207) said to have originated in the Amazon region in South America
Cacao (or Cocoa) (a tree with simple, alternating leaves)
P: Cacau
S: Cacao

When European explorers arrived in the New World in the 1400s and 1500s, Cacao was being grown in Mexico by the Aztecs.
From the Caribbean and Central America, Columbus took Cacao (in the form of cocoa beans) back to the Spanish court in 1502.

The Cacao tree is easily recognized by its dark green shiny leaves and by its characteristic pods, each about 10 inches long and often growing directly from the trunk.
The pods turn from green to brownish-red when ripe, and at that stage they are picked.
The beans are extracted from the pods and laid out to dry in the sun before being roasted and then used to make cocoa powder, cocoa butter, and chocolate.

Although the Cocoa tree has been cultivated for about 500 years, it wasn't until the middle of the 1800s that the beans were used to produce chocolate as a confectionary.

A pod of Cacao, photographed during a FONT tour in Belize
(photo by Marie Gardner)

At a cacao plantation In southeastern Brazil, over the years during FONT tours, a little bird seen usually when perched at the top of the trees, has been the Buff-throated Purpletuft, said to be a cotinga, but more closely related to tityras.
That bird is little, smaller than most hummingbirds. It sits erectly when in a treetop, only about 3 inches in length.
Its range and population are also small. Birdlife International classifies it as "endangered".
That cacao plantation, as it is right on the Tropic of Capricorn, has been called the Fazenda Capricorno, near the coastal city of Ubatuba.
Theobroma mammosum ______ CR
Theobroma simiarum ______ CR

Family STRELITZIACEAE (was at one time included in MUSACEAE)

Genus PHENAKOSPERMUM
Phenakospermum guyannense ______ native to South America

Genus STRELITZIA
Strelitzia reginae (ph) ______ CR (TPCR:404)
Bird of Paradise

The plant known as the Bird of Paradise is originally from South Africa. It now grows in the American tropics, including the Caribbean.

Bird of Paradise flowers photographed during a FONT tour
(photo by Marie Gardner)

Family SURIANACEAE

Genus SURIANA
Suriana maritima ______ CY
Bay Cedar
Juniper (name in CY)

Family THEOPHRASTACEAE

Genus BONELLIA
Bonellia nervosa ______ CR (TPCR:280)
S: Barbasco

Ffamily THYMELACEAE (Daphne)

Genus DAPHNOPSIS
Daphnopsis americana ______ CR CY (critically endangered in CY)
Daphnopsis helleron ______ PR (endemic to Puerto Rico) (endangered)
Daphnopsis occidentalis ______ CY (endangered in CY)

Family TILIACEAE (previously in the family MALVACEAE)

Genus APEIBA
Apeiba membranacea ______ CR in Costa Rica, a forest tree on both the Caribbean and Pacific slopes
Apeiba tibourbou ______ CR (TPCR:68) occurs from Mexico to South America
Monkey Comb
S: Peine de Mico

In Amazonia, the odd fruit of Apeiba tibourbou, which looks like a sea urchin, is boiled and opened, and then inhaled as an asthma treatment.

Genus LUEBEA
Luebea alternifolia ______ CR (TPCR:69) occurs from Mexico to South America, also Cuba
S: Guacimo Macho
Luebea candida ______ CR in Costa Rica, in northwest lowlands
Luebea seemannii ______ CR

Luebea seemannii is a widespread species. In Costa Rica, it is a large tree that is common in some Caribbean lowland forests.

Family TYPHACEAE (Cattail)

Genus TYPHA
Typha dominigensis ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)
Cat Tail (name in CY)

Family URTICACEAE (Nettle Family)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are about 120 described species in URTICACEAE.

Genus CECROPIA
Cecropia sp. (*) ______ BR CR
S: Guarumo

There are about 60 species of Cecropia trees in the American tropics. They are, among other things, dioecious. They are conspicuous, and, as "pioneer species", they are among the first to grow in recently cleared areas, with sun.
Generally, they are thinnish trees with very large umbrella-like leaves.
Most harbor teeming colonies of stinging ants in their hollow trunks. Those ants "protect the trees" from herbivores.

The bird, the Tropical Parula, Parula pitiayumi, eats Cecropia corpuscles, that are white ovoid grains the size of a pinhead, well hidden in the felt at the base of the leaves.
These corpuscles, discovered rather recently in Brazil, are rich in protein and therefore are much sought after by the symbiotic ants of the cecropia.

Other birds that like to feed on the fruits of cecropias are tanagers, and euphonias. Like the Tropical Parula (noted above), euphonias eat the corpuscles (or protein deposits) that are principal food of the Azteca ants living in the trees' trunks (also referred to above).

In 1945 in Costa Rica, Alexander Skutch entitled one of his publications "The Most Hospitable Tree" referring to the cecropias, calling them the "most characteristic trees" of tropical America, and explaining their immense value for fauna, especially birds.
Apparently the germination of cecropia seeds is accelerated by their passage through birds' intestinal systems.

"The Most Hospitable Tree" can be read as a chapter in Alexander Skutch's book, "A Bird Watchers Adventures in Tropical America", published in 1977.

During a few FONT tours in Costa Rica, we visited Alexander Skutch, where he did his writing at his homestead called "Los Cosingos", Below is a photo taken of him there, during one of our tours, as he was writing.

Alexander Skutch (photo by Alan Brady)

Following here is a link to:    A FEATURE ABOUT ALEXANDER SKUTCH AND HIS WRITINGS
Cecropia angustifolia ______ CR occurs from Mexico to Venezuela and Bolivia

In Costa Rica, Cecropia angustifolia is found in mountains from 3,600 to 6,000 or more feet above sea level.
Cecropia hololeuca ______ BR
P: Embauva

Birds in Brazil, and other places in the Neotropics, that frequently feed on Cecropia trees include: tanagers of many kinds, thrushes, caciques, toucans, aracaris, parakeets, bellbirds, tityras, flycatchers, saltators, woodpeckers, manakins, euphonias, trogons, and even some others.
There really can't be many others. There are not that many types of birds not included here.
Cecropia insignis ______ CR occurs from Nicaragua to Ecuador

In Costa Rica, Cecropia insignis and Cecropia obtusifolia (below) are found in wet areas on both the Caribbean and Pacific sides of the country, below 4,350 feet above sea level.

The leaves of Cecropia insignis, as well as Cecropia obtusifolia and Cecropia peltata (both below), are host plant food for the caterpillars of the butterfly Colobura dirce, the Dirce Beauty.
Cecropia obtusifolia ______ CR (TPCR:46) occurs from Mexico to northern South America
Cecropia pachystachya ______ BR
Cecropia peltata ______ CR occurs from Mexico to northern South America. and in the Antilles

In Costa Rica, Cecropia peliata is found mostly on the Pacific side of the country, in dry climates, below 3,600 feet above sea level.
Cecropia pittieri ______ CR endemic to Cocos Island, offshore Costa Rica in the Pacific Ocean
Cecropia polyphlebia ______ CR

Cecropia polyphlebia is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Hypanartia dione, the Banded Mapwing.

Genus MYRIOCARPA
Myriocarpa longipes ______ CR

Myriocarpa longipes is a host plant for the caterpillars of the butterflies: Smyrna blomfildia, the Blomfild's Beauty, and Hypanartia dione, the Banded Mapwing.

Genus PILEA
Pilea herniarioides ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)
Pilea microphylla ______ CY

Genus URERA
Urera alceifolia ______ CR
Urera baccifera ______ CR

Urera baccifera and Urera caracsana (below) are host plants for the caterpillar of the butterfly Smyrna blomfildia, the Blomfild's Beauty.
Urera caracasana ______ CR
Urera eggersii ______ CR

Urera eggersii is a host plant for the caterpillar of the butterfly Hypanartia dione, the Banded Mapwing.
Urera elata ______ CR

Family VERBENACEAE (Vervains, Verbenas)

On the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, there are over 50 described species in VERBENACEAE.

Genus AEGIPHILA
Aegiphila caymanensis ______ CY (endemic to Grand Cayman Island) (critically endangered)
Aegiphila elata ______ CY
Aegiphila facata ______ CR
Aegiphila martinicensis ______ CR
Aegiphila paniculata ______ CR
Aegiphila sellowiana ______ BR
P: Tamanqueira

Genus CALLICARPA
Callicarpa reevesii ______ BR
P: Calicarpa

Genus CITHAREXYLUM
Citharexylum costaricense ______ CR
Citharexylum donnell-smithii ______ CR
Citharexylum fruticosum ______ CY (endangered in CY)
Yellow Fiddlewood (name in CY)
Citharexylum macradenium ______ CR
Citharexylum macrophyllum ______ CR
Citharexylum myrianthum ______ BR
P: Pau-de-viola
Citharexylum viride ______ CR

Genus CLERODENDRON

Plants in CLERODENDRON are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Clerodendrum aculeatum ______ CY
Cat Claw (name in CY)
Clerodendron speciosum ______ BR
Clerodendron splendens ______ BR
Clerodendron thomsonae ______ BR

Genus CORNUTIA
Cornutia grandifolia ______ CR

Genus DURANTA
Duranta erecta ______ CR CY (TPCR:155) originally in the American tropics
Forget-me-not Tree, or Golden Dewdrop (a bush with simple, opposite leaves)
S: Adonis Morado, or Celosa Cimmarona, or Espina de Paloma, or Fruita de Iguana, or Durana

Genus HOLMSKIOLDIA

Plants in HOLMSKIOLDIA are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Holmskioldia sanguinea ______ BR
Holmskioldia sanguinea aurea ______ BR
Holmskioldia tettensis ______ BR

Genus LANTANA

Plants in LANTANA are especially attractive to feeding hummingbirds.
Lantana aculeata ______ CY
Lantana bahamensis ______ CY
Lantana camara (*) (ph) ______ CR CY PN (TPCR:103,104) occurs from Texas south into South America, and in the West Indies
Shrub Verbena (or Lantana) (a bush with simple, alternate leaves)
S: Camara, or "Coronitas del Sol", or Cinco Negritos

Other names for Lantana camara are: Wild Sage, and "Cherry Pie".

The following, about Lantana camara, a widespread, weedy, tropical shrub, is from the book "A Naturalist in Costa Rica" by Alexander Skutch, published in 1971:
"The small florets are borne in flattish heads that are orange in the center, where the unopened bulbs are situated.
Around this is a circle of bright yellow, containing freshly opened flowers with yellow chromoplasts in their cells.
At the outside of the head is a zone of orange, composed of older florets.
As the blossoms age, a reddish-purple soluble pigment appears in the epidermal cells and deepens the yellow to orange."

A Vervain Hummingbird feeding at Lantana camara
during a FONT tour in the Dominican Republic.
The Vervain Hummingbird is one of the smallest birds in the world.
(photo by Marie Garner)

Approximately 25 species of butterflies have been observed visiting the flowers of Lantana camara in Costa Rica on the Osa Peninsula, including: Eurema daira, Phoebis sennae, Ascia monuste, Anartia jatrophae, Anartia fatima, Agraulis vanillae
Also observed visiting have been moths in the genus Urbanus.

The fruit of Lantana camara is bird-dispersed. In Panama, on Barro Colorado Island, the birds that are exploiters of the fruits of Lantana camara are:
the manakin, Manacus vitellinus,
the more frugivorous flycatchers, Tyrannus melanocholicus, Myiodynastes maculatus,
the euphonia, honeycreepers, and tanager, Euphonia fulvicrissa, Chlorophanes spiza, Dacnis cayana, Tangara inornata
Lantana involucrata ______ CY
Bitter Sage (name in CY)
Lantana ovatifolia ______ DR

In the Dominican Republic, Lantana ovatifolia is a food plant for the butterflies: Battus polydamas, the Gold Rim Swallowtail, Papilio machaonides, the Machaonides Swallowtail, Papilio androgeus, the Androgeus Swallowtail, Papilio aristor, the Scarce Haitian Swallowtail, Strymon bazochii, the Lantana Scrub-Hairstreak, Hamadryas amphichloe, the Pale Cracker, Junonia genoveva, the Mangrove Buckeye, Danaus gilippus, the Queen, Danaus eresimus, the Soldier, Danaus cleophile, the Caribbean Queen or Jamaican Monarch.
Lantana reticulata ______ DR

In the Dominican Republic, Lantana reticulata is a food plant for the butterfly Strymon bazochii, the Lantana Scrub-Hairstreak.
Lantana trifolia ______ CR

Lantana trifolia is a syntopic species with Lantana camara, but the blue-flowered Lantana trifolia has narrower inflorescences, fewer nectar-producing flowers per inflorescence, and shorter flowers.
Lantana urticifolia ______ CY (endemic to the West Indies)
Sweet Sage (name in CY)

Genus LIPPIA
Lippia alba ______ CY
Lippia graveolens ______ MX(YU)
Mexican Oregano
S: Oregano

Not to be confused with European, or so-called Italian, Oregano, Lippia graveolens is in a completely different botanical family. European Oregano is in the LAMIACEAE family.
The two bear a faint resemblance in terms of fragrance, but the flavor of Lippia graveolens is much stronger due to its higher concentration of oils.
There are several varieties of Lippia graveolens found throughout Mexico, with each slightly different according to its growing environment.
There is a variety that grows wild in the Yucatan, called, appropriately Oregano Yucateco, Women and children often go in search of it. It is then dried and sold in markets. It is also cultivated in family gardens (solares) and orchards.
(from the book: "Yucatan, Recipes from a Culinary Expedition" by David Sterling)
Lippia nodiflora ______ CY
Match Head (name in CY)
Lippia torresii ______ CR

Genus PETITIA
Petitia domingensis ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands) (endangered in CY)
Fiddlewood

Genus PETREA

There are about 50 species of PETREA in tropical America.
Petrea volubilis (or Petrea arborea) (ph) ______ CR GU (TPCR:105,106) native to Central America, Mexico, and the Lesser Antilles
Queen's Wreath, or Blue Bird Vine (a climbing plant with simple, opposite leaves)
S: Adolfina, or Bejuco, or Choreque

When Petrea volubilis is in full bloom, with its drooping panicles of light-blue flowers (whose star-like sepals remain on the plant for a long time), they are a glorious sight. The pansy-like corollas fall off intact, and the ground underfoot becomes a bright blue.

There is also a white-flowered form, called "Albiflora".

Petrea volubilis,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"

Genus REHDERA
Rehdera trinervis ______ CR

Genus STACHYTARPHETA

In a Verbena in the Stachytarpheta genus, a male Wire-crested Thorntail,
at Copalinga during the April 2014 FONT tour in southern Ecuador
(photo by Marie Gardner)
Stachytarpheta frantzii ______ CR (TPCR:107) occurs in Central America
Porterweed

Although Stachytarpheta frantzii is a native species in Costa Rica, it is more often seen there in cultivation.
It is a great plant for attracting hummingbirds (generally with short bills), butterflies, and moths.
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis ______ CY DR

In the Dominican Republic, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis is a food plant for the butterfly Strymon istapa, the Mallow Scrub-Hairstreak.
Stachytarpheta sp. ______ EC (in the photo above)

Genus VITEX
Vitex cooperi ______ CR

Family VIOLACEAE (Violet)

Genus AMPHIRRHOX
Amphirrhox longifolia ______ CR

Genus GLEOASPERMUM
Gleoaspermum diversipetalum ______ CR

Genus RINOREA
Rinorea pubipes ______ CR

Family VITACEAE (Grape)

Genus CISSUS
Cissus microcarpa ______ CY
Pudding White (name in CY)
Cissus trifoliata ______ CY
Cissus verticillata ______ CY (vulnerable in CY)

Family VOCHYSIACEAE (most closely related to MYRTACEAE)

6 of the 8 genera in VOCHYSIACEAE are in the Neotropics.

Genus VOCHYSIA

Plants in VOCHYSIA are fed upon, for the nectar in their flowers, by the butterfly Adelpha iphiclus, the Iphiclus Sister.

Family ZAMIACEAE (Cone-palm Ferns)

The CYCADS, in the genus ZAMIA, are some of the oldest living plants on Earth, being well represented in the fossil record, and often referred to a "living fossils".

The genus ZAMIA, now in the family ZAMIACEAE, was previously in CYCADACEAE.

Genus DIOON
Dioon edule ______ (native to Central America)
Chestnut Dioon (a palm fern)

Genus ZAMIA
Zamia fairchildiana ______ CR
S: Zamia, or Palmera Siempre Verde
Zamia integrifolia ______ CY (endemic to the Greater Antilles) (critically endangered in CY)
Bulrush (name in CY)
Zamia skinneri ______ CR
S: Zamia, or Palmera Siempre Verde

Family ZINGIBERACEAE (Ginger and allies)

Genus ALPINIA
Alpinia purpurata ______ CR (TPCR:156) originally from southeast Asia and southern Pacific islands
Red Ginger
S: Antorcha

Genus HEDYCHIUM
Hedychium coronarium ______ CR (TPCR:157) originally from the Himalayan region in Asia
White Ginger
S: Lirio Blanco

Genus RENEALMIA
Renealmia cernua ______ CR (TPCR:158)

Renealmia cernua is one of 14 native ginger species in Costa Rica.

Genus ZINGIBER
Zingiber officinale ______ CR (TPCR:209)   thought to have originated in southern Asia
Ginger
S: Jengibre

Ginger is a perennial herbaceous plant that is now widely cultivated in most tropical countries, particularly so in the Caribbean, where Jamaica is famous for the production and exportation of commercial ginger.
In Costa Rica, it is grown in most areas, but more so in hotter, more humid regions. It sometimes escapes from cultivation.

The plant grows as a group of leafy shoots which reach a height of between 2 and 3 feet. The ginger familiar in shops and supermarkets is extracted from the underground tuberous stems.
The white form of ginger is obtained by washing, boiling, peeling, and then blanching the rhizomes.
Another form, black ginger, is produced by washing and boiling he rhizomes and then drying them. The dried rhizomes are also ground into a powder.
Ground ginger is used mainly in cake flavorings and for adding to drinks such as ginger ale.
Preserved ginger, which is used in baking fruit cakes and as an ingredient of ginger marmalade, is produced by boiling prepared rhizones in a sugar syrup.

Family ZYGOPHYLLACEAE (Caltrop)

Genus GUAIACUM
Guaiacum sanctum (ph) ______ CR GU
S: Guayacan

Guiaiacum sanctum,
from the "Flowers of Guatemala"

Genus TRIBULUS
Tribulus cistoides ______ CY
Jamaican Feverplant (or Puncture Vine)
Jim Carter Weed (name in CY)

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